Basil

Botanical Nomenclature: Ocimum basilicum
Extraction Method: Distillation

Basil essential oil made from Ocimum basilicum is called “holy basil” in India and this is due to the fact that basil is enormously important to the Hindu faith and is dedicated to the goddess Lakshmi. Also known as tulsi, basil, which is native to tropical Asia, is now cultivated around the world.

Characteristics of Basil Oil

A good basil oil will be thin and nearly clear. Basil has a slightly sweet and grassy scent with just a hint of licorice in it. Basil should always smell fresh and not musty.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Aromatherapists write that basil is a warm essential oil that improves mood and revives the fatigued mind. Basil oil is diffused to ease depression, stimulate thinking and banish melancholy.

Traditional Uses for Basil

Basil was once believed to ward off evil spirits. But basil had medicinal uses, too. It is a popular home remedy for digestive conditions, nervous disorders and to expel parasites. Aromatherapist Salvatore Battaglia assigns the following therapeutic properties to basil oil:

• Analgesic
• Antidepressant
• Antiseptic
• Antispasmodic
• Carminative
• Digestive
• Expectorant
• Nervine

Serious Medical Studies Of Basil Oil

Parasites

Basil has become a favorite folk remedy for various parasites in recent years and this use has at least some basis in science. A 2007 study confirmed that basil essential oil is effective against Giardia lamblia, a protozoan parasite that can infect humans, pets and lifestock. This study looked at the effects of adding basil oil to drinking water.

Fungal Infections Basil has been used for centuries to treat fungal infections. A 2003 study showed that basil could effectively inhibit the growth of fungi on fruit. This backed up findings from a 2002 study which found basil oil effective against 13 fungal species, including some that infect humans.

Ear Infections

When compared to a placebo in a 2005 study, basil essential oil, in the words of researchers, “cured or healed” the majority of inner ear infections in laboratory animals. In this test, animals were intentionally infected then treated with basil oil dropped into their ear canals.

Safety Issues

Basil oil may be as much as 85% methyl chavicol, a suspected carcinogen. As such, basil is often listed as contra-indicated during pregnancy. Basil may be also be a skin irritant.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.

de Almeida, I., et al. (2007). Antigiardial activity of Ocimum basilicum essential oil.

Kristinsson, K., et al. (2005). Effective treatment of experimental acute otitis media by application of volatile fluids into the ear canal.

Edris, A., et al. (2003). Antifungal activity of peppermint and sweet basil essential oils and their major aroma constituents on some plant pathogenic fungi from the vapor phase.

Sokovic, M., et al. (2002). Antifungal activities of selected aromatic plants growing wild in Greece.

Frankincense

Botanical Nomenclature: Boswelli frererana
Extraction Method: Distillation

Frankincense essential oil has few rivals among aromatherapy oils when it comes to the sheer number of major religions that have incorporated it into their most sacred rituals. The ancient Egyptians, Persians, Hebrews, Greeks and Romans all used frankincense in their practices. And, of course, frankincense continues to be used in Christian worship, as well.

Today, five species of Boswelli, or frankincense, are widely available for aromatherapy use. These are:

• B. carteri
• B. frereana
• B. papyifera
• B. sacra
• B. serrata

The most common essential oil found in North American aromatherapy is probably B. frereana while the most-studied form of frankincense in laboratory tests is probably B. serrata. Regardless of its botanical origin, all frankincense essential oil is made in the same way. Workers make wounds in the bark of the tree then collect the milky liquid that “bleeds” from the incision. This sap is allowed to dry into an amber-colored crystals called “tears” and then the tears are distilled.

Additionally, an absolute, made through solvent extraction of the tears can also be made. This resinoid product is not often use in aromatherapy; it is most often produced for the perfume industry.

Characteristics of Frankincense Essential Oil

Frankincense essential oil should be yellow in color and quite thin in texture. Frankincense is one of those essential oils that changes with age but all frankincense should have a strong, full scent. Frankincense will be less “woody” than other wood oils and should have fresh, spicy undertones.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Spiritual aromatherapists tell us that frankincense lovers are deeply spiritual people who may seem a bit aloof or secretive. They tend to be mature, rational thinkers rooted in a deep understanding of nature.

Aromatherapists will diffuse frankincense into a room to dispel evil, deepen concentration, enhance contemplative prayer and meditation and to maximize psychological maturity.

Traditional Uses for Frankincense

As important as frankincense is to the world’s major religions, it is also extremely important in the world of cosmetics and toiletries. It is widely regarded as anti-inflammatory and healing. It is a common ingredient in “natural” cosmetics, especially those marketed for wounded, extremely dry or “mature” skin.

Salvatore Battaglia also assigns these therapeutic actions to frankincense:

• Astringent
• Antiseptic
• Aphrodisiac
• Carminative
• Diuretic
• Expectorant
• Sedative
• Uterine

Scientific Studies on Frankincense Oil

While frankincense (and extracts made from it) have seen fairly extensive testing for its potential health benefits, the essential oils themselves have not. Unless specifically noted, the scientific studies discussed in this section may have used preparations other than the essential oils in their tests.

Frankincense & Immune Support

Avicenna recommended frankincense preparations for fever and now we know that he was right. A 2003 study from Egypt identified chemical properties in frankincense essential oil that potentially make frankincense a powerful immune support.

Collagenous Colitis

A small study of colitis patients found that when given a 6-week regimen of boswellia extract, 5 of 7 patients experienced a complete remission of their condition. This study, done in Germany, involved 3 daily doses of 400 mg of boswellia extract taken orally. These findings support previous studies which also found boswellia better than placebo in laboratory tests.

Anti-Cancer Potential

A 2007 study published in the journal Apoptosis found that a chemical isolated from B. serrata induced apoptosis in human leukemia cells. What, if anything, this means for cancer sufferers remains to be seen.

Safety Issues

Frankincense, like most other essential oils, has not been extensively tested for safety in humans. In popular aromatherapy texts, frankincense is listed as non-toxic, non-sensitizing and non-irritating.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy

Mikhaeil, B., et al. (2003). Chemistry and immunomodulatory activity of frankincense oil.

Midisch, A., et al. (2007). Boswellia serrata extract for the treatment of collagenous colitis. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial.

Bhushan, S., et al. (2007). A triterpenediol from Boswellia serrata induces apoptosis through both the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways in human leukemia HL-60 cells.

Bergamot

Botanical Nomenclature: Citrus bergamia
Extraction Method: Cold Pressing

Bergamot essential oil, like all other citrus oils, is too delicate to be distilled. The essential oil of this small fruit is, instead, forced out of the peel through a mechanical procedure aromatherapists call “cold pressing”. In many ways, citrus oils like bergamot are the only “true” essential oils because they contain no solvent residues and haven’t been exposed the potentially damaging heat used in distillation.

Native to a small area of southern Italy, the tree that gives us bergamot is now grown throughout the Mediterranean. The fruit that this small tree produces is too bitter for human consumption but the essential oils contained in the fruit’s peel is one of the most important oils in all of aromatherapy.

Characteristics of Bergamot Oil

Bergamot essential oil has a distinctive citrus scent that’s similar to orange oil but less sweet and with hints of grassy undertones. A good bergamot should be lightly colored and may range from very light green to yellow.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Like other citrus oils, bergamot is regarded as an anti-depressant, uplifting and happy oil. Sometimes called the “grown-up’s orange” bergamot is similar to orange oil but smells far less sweet.

Traditional Uses for Bergamot Oil

Traditionally, bergamot’s most popular use was as a flavoring for Earl Grey tea. But bergamot is believed to have therapeutic properties, too. Essential oil expert Salvatore Battaglia tells us that bergamot oil is:

• Analgesic
• Antidepressant
• Anti-Microbial
• Carminative
• Digestive
• Sedative
• Febrifuge
• Nervine
• Stomachic
• Tonic

Scientific Studies on Bergamot Oil

Fungal Infections

A number of in vitro studies have found bergamot essential oil effective against many of the most common species of dermatophytes. One of the most notable studies was a 2007 Italian study that ultimately suggested that bergamot oil may be an effective topical treatment for Candida and other common nail and skin infections.

Antibacterial Properties

Bergamot has long been known to have anti-microbial properties. A 2006 study of essential oil vapors confirmed this when it found bergamot essential oil the most effective citrus oil tested against common species of bacteria, including E. coli, Campylobacter and Listeria.

Safety Issues

Like many other citrus oils, bergamot is a phototoxic oil. The International Fragrance Research Association advises that bergamot not exceed 0.04% of any formula that is allowed to stay on the skin.

In a 2001 study from Austria, researchers cite two separate instances in which bergamot oil caused phototoxic and melanogenic reactions. One patient reported no prior direct contact with any essential oil but experienced a reaction after diffusing bergamot oil in a sauna then using a tanning bed.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.

Sanguinetti, M., et al. (2007). In vitro activity of Citrus bergamia (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes.

Fisher, K., et al. (2007). The effect of lemon, orange and bergamot essential oils and their components on the survival of Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus in vitro and in food systems.

Kaddu, S., et al. (2001). Accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot aromatherapy oil.

Lavender

Botanical Nomenclature: Lavandula angustifolia
Extraction Method: Distillation

Ah, lavender essential oil. In many ways, there would be no aromatherapy without lavender. Not only is it by far the most popular of all the essential oils; it’s also the first to be documented therapeutically. You see, back in the late 1920s, a French chemist named Rene Gattefosse coined the phrase “aromatherapy” after using lavender to heal a serious burn.

In a story that’s been told and re-told throughout the decades, Gattefosse burned his hand during a laboratory experiment. Nearly hysterical with pain, he plunged his wounded fist into the nearest open container of liquid—a vat of pure lavender oil. As the legend goes, Gattefosse was so impressed with the immediate pain relief (and the eventual complete healing of such a serious burn) that he devoted the rest of his life to the study of volatile botanical oils.

But lavender oil is more than just aromatherapy’s firstborn. It’s also immensely popular in the perfume, food and home fragrance industries. Today lavender flavors pastries, scents cleaning products and is the most popular scent in “natural” cosmetics and toiletries.

The genus Lavandula is made up of at least 30 species but it’s oil distilled from the leaves and flowers of Lavandula angustifolia that aromatherapists considered the one true lavender. This species was previously known as L. officinalis and it’s still sold under that label occasionally.

Characteristics of Lavender Oil

True lavender oils should come only from L. angustifolia but because lavender essential oil is often distilled from any of the other species—and is sometimes a blend of several species—lavender oil will vary somewhat in its scent. But all lavender should have a herbaceous and almost medicinal scent with balsamic undertones and the faintest hints of floral. Any lavender oil should be thin and nearly colorless.

Unfortunately, its popularity makes lavender one of the most adulterated oils in the world. Lavender can be adulterated with other species of lavender, related species and even chemical “duplicates”. To get true, pure lavender oil, buy only from a reputable dealer and purchase only those brands you know you can trust.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Lavender is best known for its alleged relaxing and calming actions. It’s widely used in de-stressing blends for this reason.

Lavender is also considered a “balanced” or “gender neutral” oil and appeals equally well to both men and women. Lavender people are considered well-adjusted people who are in tune with themselves and considered and patient with others.

Traditional Uses for Lavender Essential Oil

Lavender is sometimes called the “mother” of essential oils and has been used over the years for a variety of reasons. It’s a popular oil to have on hand during childbirth and was once used extensively for reproductive health issues.

Lavender’s antimicrobial properties also make it a popular oil for sickrooms. Some stories claim that towns that grew lavender commercially during outbreaks of the plague were spared the worst of the infections. True or not, lavender is widely considered in aromatherapy to be a first-line oil during cold and flu season.

Lavender is also highly prized for its alleged healing properties. It’s a popular oil to dab onto minor cuts, scrapes, bug bites and minor burns. There is some evidence that lavender was once used as a disinfectant when battlefield supplies of medicinal disinfectants ran out.

Author and aromatherapy expert Salvatore Battaglia assigns these therapeutic actions to lavender essential oil:

• Analgesic
• Anticonvulsive & Antispasmodic
• Antidepressant
• Antispasmodic
• Antimicrobial
• Carminative
• Decongestant
• Deodorant
• Diuretic
• Emmenagogue
• Hypotensive
• Nervine
• Sedative

Serious Medical Studies on Lavender Oil

Given lavender’s incredible popularity in aromatherapy, it’s surprising to learn that only a few dozen studies on L. angustifolia have been published in medical journals.

Behavioral Problems

One of the problems facing caregivers of dementia patients is agitation and, unfortunately, the risks and side effects of mainstream pharmaceuticals often outweigh the potential benefits. But a 2007 Chinese study published in the International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that lavender essential oil, diffused into the air, effectively calmed elderly dementia patients while presenting no documented side effects.

Fungal Infections

Lavender has long been prized for its believed antimicrobial actions. A 2005 Italian study is just one of several that found lavender oil effective against the common fungal infection Candida albicans.

Stress

Aromatherapy most often uses lavender for stress reduction and a number of studies have focused on the calming effects of the oil. A 2007 study on gerbils found that exposure to the scent of lavender essential oil reduced noticeable stress responses in laboratory animals during maze tests.

Safety Issues

Most of the popular aromatherapy books rave about lavender’s safety and mildness. Unfortunately, this exuberance seems to be a bit premature. Contrary to widely held beliefs, allergies to lavender do occur—and just among professionals who work with the oils, as some aromatherapy authors have claimed.

There is also some evidence that the linalool content of lavender oil may be cytotoxic to human skin cells. In laboratory tests concentrations of 0.25% proved cytotoxic to all cell types tested in this experiment.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy

Lin, P., et al. (2007). Efficacy of aromatherapy (Lavandula angustifolia) as an intervention for agitated behaviours in Chinese older persons with dementia: a cross-over randomized trial.

Bradley, B., et al. (2007). Anxiolytic effects of Lavandula angustifolia odour on the Mongolian gerbil elevated plus maze.

D’Auria, F., et al. (2005). Antifungal activity of Lavandula angustifolia essential oil against Candida albicans yeast and mycelial form.

Prashar, A. (2004). Cytotoxicity of lavender oil and its major components to human skin cells.

Black Pepper

Botanical Nomenclature: Piper nigrum
Extraction Method: Distillation

Black pepper essential oil may not sound like a promising new tool in the aromatherapist’s arsenal but this unfamiliar essence may well be one of the most promising essential oils around.

Native to Indonesia and southern India, the plant that gives us black pepper has been cultivated by humans for more than 2,000 years. This perennial flowering vine produces small fruits that, when allowed to ripen, produce the spice we call white pepper. But if those fruits are picked before they’re allowed to fully mature, the resulting pepper is known as black pepper. And it’s from those unripe fruits, with their berries still intact, that essential oil producers distill their precious essential oil.

Characteristics of Black Pepper Oil

Depending upon the ripeness of the fruits used to make it, black pepper oil will range from colorless to pale green. All black pepper should have a warm, spicy wood scent with a definite “pepper” smell.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Aromatherapy regards black pepper oil as “warming” and “tonifying”. It is often diffused to dispel melancholy and to strengthen reserve. Spiritual aromatherapists tell us that people who feel especially drawn to black pepper are responsible but often self-righteous people with strong leadership skills and a “can-do” attitude.

Traditional Uses for Black Pepper Oil

Traditionally, pepper has been used mainly to stimulate organs like the spleen. Author Salvatore Battaglia assigns the following actions to the essential oil:

• Analgesic
• Antiseptic
• Antispasmodic
• Carminative
• Diaphoretic
• Diuretic
• Laxative
• Tonic
• Stomachic

Scientific Studies on Black Pepper Essential Oil

As is the case with other culinary spices, much of the research on black pepper has focused on the ground spice and not on the essential oil. While laboratory tests have shown that black pepper may have anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and antioxidant activities, only one peer-reviewed human study on the oil itself was found in the course of our investigation of this oil.

Effect on the Sympathetic Nervous System

Your sympathetic nervous system, or SNS, is the branch of your autonomic nervous system responsible for the fight-or-flight response during times of stress. A 2002 Japanese study found that inhalation of black pepper oil caused a 1.7 fold increase in hormones associated with the fight-or-flight response. Exactly how this information will prove useful has yet to be determined.

Safety Issues

Like many essential oils, black pepper has not been exhaustively studied for side effects. Most aromatherapy texts list black pepper oil as non-irritating and non-sensitizing but, again, this has not been proven scientifically.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.

Haze, S., et al. (2002). Effects of fragrance inhalation on sympathetic activity in normal adults.

Grapefruit

Botanical Nomenclature: Citrus paradisi, C. racemosa
Extraction Method: Cold pressing

Grapefruit essential oil is made from the only variety of citrus that’s native to the Americas. It’s thought that today’s grapefruit trees are the result of a cross between other citrus species brought to the West Indies by Spanish explorers in the 1600s.

Regardless of grapefruit’s exact origins, there’s no doubt that this large and sometimes bitter fruit is immensely important to a number of industries. While it’s only recently been “discovered” by aromatherapy, grapefruit has long been used to flavor foods and scent toiletries like soaps, shampoos and lotions.

Like all other citrus fruits, grapefruit essential oil is expeller pressed from the rinds of its ripe fruit. Both “white” grapefruit and “red” or “ruby” grapefruit can be used to make essential oil. The only significant difference is a slightly higher aldehyde in the “white” varieties.

In shopping for grapefruit oil, you may find a number of species represented as “grapefruit”. Perhaps the most common oil is C. paradisi. It’s believed to be a hybrid of C. maxima and C. sinensis.

Characteristics of Grapefruit Oil

Grapefruit essential oil is a thin, yellow or yellow-green oil with a definite “citrus” scent. It should be less sweet than sweet orange but less harsh than bergamot. It will feel a bit “wet” to the nose and a tad drier than orange.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Like other citrus oils, grapefruit appeals to people who are warm, happy and generally optimistic. Grapefruit may feel a bit more sophisticated than other citrus oils and is a good oil for people who feel stressed or tense.

Grapefruit can be a fantastic substitute for heavier, sweeter citrus oils. Lisa Barger calls it “the grown-up’s citrus”.

Traditional Uses for Grapefruit Oil

Generally, grapefruit oil is considered more similar to lemon than other citrus oils. Author Salvatore Battaglia assigns the following therapeutic actions to grapefruit:

• Antidepressant
• Antiseptic
• Depurative
• Diuretic
• Disinfectant
• Stimulant

Scientific Studies on Grapefruit Oil

Weight Loss

As surprising as it seems, grapefruit essential oil, diffused into the air, may help some people lose weight. A 2005 Japanese study on rats found that exposure to the scent of grapefruit essential oil directly affected the adrenal glands and, in the words of researchers, “inhibited the parasympathetic gastric nerve”.

This study found that a 15-minute exposure to the scent of grapefruit essential oil 3 times a week effectively reduced food intake—apparently by directly suppressing the appetite. To date, no human studies have been published but the results seem very promising.

Cancer

The various citrus oils have long been associated with detoxification and a 2003 suggests that the limonene content of citrus oils may also have strong anti-cancer properties. This study found that limonene and other chemical components of citrus oils induced apoptosis, or cell death, when put into direct contact with tumor cells. How this may someday benefit human cancer patients has yet to be determined.

Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria

As drug-resistant “super bugs” become more and more common, science is increasingly looking to botanical medicine for help. A 2004 study from the UK suggests that adding grapefruit essential oil to the standard antibiotic methicillin increases the effectiveness of the drug even on strains of Staph that are resistant to the drug.

Safety Issues

Grapefruit is know to interact with or influence the metabolism of a number of medications. To date, all studies on grapefruit’s potential drug interactions has focused on ingested grapefruit and not on the potential effects of inhaling the vapor of the essential oils. How, or even if, the casual use of grapefruit essential oil in aromatherapy could cause drug interactions is unknown at this time.

In popular aromatherapy texts, grapefruit oil is considered non-toxic and non-sensitizing. And unlike other citrus oils, grapefruit shows very little potential for phototoxicity.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy

Stump, A., et al. (2006). Management of Grapefruit-Drug Interactions.

Shen, J., et al. (2005). Olfactory stimulation with scent of grapefruit oil affects autonomic nerves, lipolysis and appetite in rats.

Hata, T., et al. (2003). Induction of apoptosis by Citrus paradisi essential oil in human leukemic (HL-60) cells.

Abulrob, A., et al. (2004). Identification and biological evaluation of grapefruit oil components as potential novel efflux pump modulators in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacterial strains.

Carrot Seed

Botanical Nomenclature: Daucus carota
Extraction Method: Distillation

Carrot seed essential oil is made not from edible kitchen-variety carrots but from a European species known as “wild” carrots and has grown in popularity recently as a additive in various skin care products. It’s rarely used as a diffused oil, though. Most commonly, carrot seed oil is prized for its vitamin A component and is added to soaps, body creams and even natural sunscreens.

Carrot seed oil is distilled from the seeds of Daucus carota. There is a carrot root oil made through chemical extraction of the roots (the part we normally just refer to as “carrots”) but this oil is extremely rare and normally not available to those outside the cosmeseutical industry.

Characteristics of Carrot Seed Oil

Carrot seed oil should be pale yellow to amber in color with an “organic”, earthy scent reminiscent of fresh garden soil. There should be a slightly sweet top note that gives way to a vaguely spicy undertone. Carrot seed oil may feel full and dry to the nose.

Psychological Aromatherapy

To our knowledge, carrot seed oil isn’t used in psychological aromatherapy. But Salvatore Battaglia quotes another aromatherapy author when he says that carrot seed oil personalities are associated with “egoism” and “sense of self”.

Traditional Uses for Carrot Seed Oil

Its high vitamin A content makes carrot seed essential oil a popular additive in “natural” cosmetics, especially skin care creams targeting the “mature skin” market. In his book The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy, Salvatore Battaglia also assigns the following actions to carrot seed essential oil:

• Carminative
• Cytophylactic
• Depurative
• Emmenagogue
• Diurteic
• Hepatic

Scientific Studies on Carrot Seed Oil

Given its relatively anonymity in American aromatherapy, it may be surprising to learn that carrot seed essential oil has seen its share of scientific studies.

Campylobacter Fighter

Campylobacter is a genus of bacteria responsible for sickening over 1 million Americans every year. This makes Campylobacter one of the most common diarrhea-causing illnesses in the U.S. And immune-compromised people who contract this disease can actually die from the infection.

But a 2007 study published in the Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry found that carrot seed essential oil showed great promise against several strains of Campylobacter, including one multi-drug resistant strain of C. jejuni.

Helicobacter pylori

The discovery of the link between ulcers and a strain of bacteria called Helicobacter pylori revolutionized the way this very common stomach condition is treated. A 2003 animal study of various essential oils and their actions against H. pylori produced somewhat disappointing results but in more than 20% of the animals given carrot seed oil orally, the infection cleared. Researchers aren’t sure why carrot seed oil performed so well compared to other oils but this research is certainly intriguing.

Antifungal Actions

In addition to its proven antibacterial activity, carrot seed oil also shows great potential as an antifungal agent. A 2004 study published in a Polish journal found that one of the main constituents of carrot seed oil, carotol, inhibited fungal growth by as much as 65% in laboratory tests.

Safety Issues

Like most essential oils, carrot seed hasn’t been tested for safety or toxicity. Today’s aromatherapy books list carrot seed oil as non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing. In preparation for this article, we could find no documented cases of carrot oil toxicity or sensitization.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy

CDC. (2005). Campylobacter Infections.

Jasicka-Misiak, I., et al. (2004). Antifungal activity of the carrot seed oil and its major sesquiterpene compounds.

Rossi, P., et al. (2007). (E)-Methylisoeugenol and elemicin: antibacterial components of Daucus carota L. essential oil against Campylobacter jejuni.

Bergonzelli, G., et al. (2003). Essential oils as components of a diet-based approach to management of Helicobacter infection.

Fennel

Botanical Nomenclature: Foeniculum vulgare
Extraction Method: Distillation

Fennel essential oil is somewhat unique because while most essential oils are made by distilling flowers, leaves or bark, fennel is different. It’s made by crushing and then distilling the seeds of F. vulgare.

This perennial herb, which may be biennial in some areas, has two subspecies and the essential oil produced from each is very different from the other. The variety known as amara gives us bitter fennel while the variety known as dulce gives us the more familiar sweet fennel.

Characteristics of Fennel Oil

Fennel essential oil should be a pale yellowish color with a sweet “soil” scent that has undertones of pepper and spice. It should feel a bit dry in the nose.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Aromatherapist Patricia Davis calls fennel an effective defense against evil forces and recommends it whenever you feel threatened by a “psychic attack”. Other aromatherapists use fennel to help open creative channels and reduce overly-analytical thinking.

Traditional Uses for Fennel Oil

Various preparations made from fennel have been used throughout history to help purge congestion, ease menstrual issues and promote the flow of urine. But perhaps fennel’s best-known use is as a stomach ailment. Fennel was actually approved by Germany’s Commission E, which is similar to our FDA, for peptic ulcers, spastic colon and flatulence.

Aromatherapy author Salvatore Battaglia assigns the following actions to fennel essential oil:

• Antiseptic
• Antispasmodic
• Carminative
• Depurative
• Diuretic
• Emmenagogue
• Expectorant
• Splenic
• Stomachic

Scientific Studies on Fennel Oil

Anti-Microbial Activities In Soil

In controlled tests, fennel essential oil showed what researchers called “marked antifungal activity” against one of the most damaging plant pathogens, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. When tested on soil used to grow tomatoes, fennel essential oil increased the survival rate of seedlings by more than 50%.

Diuretic Properties

Fennel has been a long-time favorite diuretic among herbalists and a 2007 study published in the Journal of Enthopharmacology listed fennel as first among a number of essential oils studied for diuretic actions.

Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis kills 3 million people around the world every year and drug-resistant strains are becoming more and more common. But in the future, perhaps essential oils like fennel may be used to fight this aggressive and often deadly disease.

A 2007 study published in the journal Phytotherapy Research found fennel essential oil among the oils that showed at least some activity against dug-resistant strains of tuberculosis. In fact, although fennel had to be used at a higher “dose” than the best-performing oil, it was one of only two oils that showed activity against all TB strains tested in this study.

Tumors & Cancer

While fennel often doesn’t perform as well as other botanical extracts against tumors, a few studies suggest that fennel may have some potential as an anti-cancer agent. One of the most recent studies finding in favor of fennel was a 2007 report in the the Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

Ulcers

In Germany, fennel essential oil is an approved remedy for peptic ulcers. A study in the journal World Journal of Gastroenterology is only the latest in a line of studies proving that fennel can reduce, and even prevent, some types of damage to the intestinal tract.

Fennel has also been studied for other digestive complaints, including constipation, IBS and similar conditions. Fennel is one of the ingredients in the popular herbal tea Smooth Move.

Safety Issues

As is the case with all botanical extracts, most of the research is done in vitro or on animals. Like other essential oils, fennel has not been exhaustively studied for long-term or high-dose use in humans.

Many popular aromatherapy texts contraindicate fennel for those with epilepsy and those who are pregnant and nursing. Some caution against any oral uses at all. While scientific support for these positions is scant, we do know that fennel contains potentially troublesome chemical components like trans-anethole, which is suspected of having hormone-influencing qualities.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy

Soylu, S., et al. (2007). Antifungal effects of essential oils from oregano and fennel on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

Wright, C., et al. (2007). Herbal medicines as diuretics: A review of the scientific evidence.

Camacho-Corona, M., et al. (2007). Activity against drug resistant-tuberculosis strains of plants used in Mexican traditional medicine to treat tuberculosis and other respiratory diseases.

Kaileh, M., et al. (2007). Screening of indigenous Palestinian medicinal plants for potential anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activity.

Birdane, F., et al. (2007). Beneficial effects of Foeniculum vulgare on ethanol-induced acute gastric mucosal injury in rats.

Bub, S., et al. (2006). Efficacy of an herbal dietary supplement (Smooth Move) in the management of constipation in nursing home residents: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.

Bilia, A., et al. (2000). Identification by HPLC-DAD and HPLC-MS analyses and quantification of constituents of fennel teas and decoctions.

Clove

Botanical Nomenclature: Syzygium aromaticum
Extraction Method: Distillation/Rectification

Clove essential oil is made by distilling either the leaves or flower buds of Szygium aromaticum, which is a tree grown mainly for the spice market. Most of the major healing modalities—Ayurveda, TCM and Western herbalism—use clove preparations for various medicinal purposes.

Legend tells us that at various times throughout history, European healers used clove buds to freshen the air and protect against the most common pathogens of the day.

Characteristics of Clove Oil

Clove oil can range from pale yellow to brown, depending upon which part of the plant was used. All clove oils should have an overpowering “spicy” bite them with strong “woody” notes. Some clove oils are somewhat sweet-smelling while others can feel quite dry to the nose.

Psychological Aromatherapy

In Chinese medicine all preparations of clove are thought to stimulate Qi so it will come as no surprise that nearly all of today’s aromatherapy authors also associate clove essential oil with warming, energizing qualities.

Traditional Uses for Clove

Today, clove is used mainly as a spice but in centuries past various clove preparations were an important herbal medicine. Traditional Chinese medicine uses clove to aid digestion while modern European herbalism uses clove preparations to cleanse the mouth and support oral health. In fact, one of clove essential oil’s best-known uses is for dental health. Most of the popular aromatherapy books mention clove oil as a home remedy for toothache.

Salvatore Battaglia lists the following therapeutic actions in his clove oil monograph:

• Analgesic
• Antiseptic
• Antisposmodic
• Carminative & Stomachic

Serious Medical Studies on Clove Essential Oil

Clove has long been associated with the prevention of infections. Today many of the recent studies on clove essential oil have focused on agricultural and commercial uses but a few medicinal studies stand out:

Antifungal Actions

Clove’s eugenol content, which can approach 90%, is thought to be responsible for clove’s ability to fight various fungal infections. A 2007 Korean study published in the Journal of Microbiology found clove oil diluted to 0.2 mg/ml effective at a rate of 60% when tested against some of the most common dermatophytes.

A similar study, this one looking at clove’s effectiveness against Candida, found clove essential oil a “powerful” and “easily accessible” remedy against strains that cause most human yeast infections.

Antiviral Actions

In laboratory tests, clove oil demonstrates the ability to effectively arrest the replication of various Herpes strains. Again, it seems to be the eugenol content that is responsible for this action.

Dust Mites

One of the most interesting recent studies on clove oil looked at clove’s ability to fight one of the most common household allergens—dust mites. Exactly how (or even if) this discovery will ever be put into practical use remains to be seen but clove was among several oils shown to kill this common pest.

Safety Issues

Clove is a strong dermal irritant and may well be one of the best-documented irritants of all the common aromatherapy oils. Numerous reports of both allergy and sensitization have been published throughout the years and, today, many aromatherapy books recommend that clove essential oil never be used on the skin, even if properly diluted.

Clove is also a potential poison and it takes surprisingly little to cause serious health problems. In 1991 a 7-month-old child was nearly killed after he accidentally ingested clove essential oil. This report mirrors the experience of a slightly older toddler who experienced liver failure in 2005 after ingesting only 10 ml of the oil.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.
Lalko, J., et al. (2005). Investigation of the dermal sensitization potential of various essential oils in the local lymph node assay.
Lane, B., et al. (1991). Clove oil ingestion in an infant.
Janes, S., et al. (2005). Essential oil poisoning: N-acetylcysteine for eugenol-induced hepatic failure and analysis of a national database.
Park, M., et al. (2007). Antifungal activities of the essential oils in Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. Et Perry and Leptospermum petersonii Bailey and their constituents against various dermatophytes.
Chaieb, K., et al. (2007). Antioxidant properties of the essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllata and its antifungal activity against a large number of clinical Candida species.
Tragoolpua, Y., et al. (2007). Anti-herpes simplex virus activities of Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bullock & S. G. Harrison and essential oil, eugenol.
Saad, et al. (2006). Acaricidal activities of some essential oils and their monoterpenoidal constituents against house dust mite, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (Acari: Pyroglyphidae).

Boldo

Botanical Nomenclature: Peumus boldus
Extraction Method: Distillation

Boldo essential oil is distilled from the leaves of Peumus boldus, a small tree that grows wild in parts of South America. Indigenous people in the Andes Mountains have used boldo medicinally for years.

Characteristics of Boldo Oil

Boldo oil is yellow in color and, like most other distilled oils, thin. It has a strong spicy scent. George Burdock, of Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients, describes the scent has “similar to melissa”.

Psychological Aromatherapy

Though various preparations of boldo have been used or centuries, today’s aromatherapists agree that essential oil of boldo should not be used in aromatherapy, due to its ascaridole content.

Traditional Uses for Boldo Oil

Though there’s little evidence that an essential oil of boldo was ever used medicinally, various cultures in its native South America used other boldo preprations (especially infusions) for infections, arthritis and even liver and gall bladder disorders.

Perhaps boldo was best-known as a treatment for gonorrhoea. It was extensively used for inflammation of the genitals and urinary tract.

Serious Medical Studies on Boldo Oil

In preparation for this article, we could find no scientific studies on the use of boldo oil for any medical condition.

Safety Issues

Boldo is not considered safe for aromatherapy—at least by most popular aromatherapy authors—mainly due to its ascaridole content. Like most other essential oils, boldo hasn’t been exhaustively studied.

References:

Battaglia, S. (2005). The Complete Guide to Aromatherapy.

Burdock, G. (2004). Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients.

Vogel, H. (1999). Studies of Genetic Variation of Essential Oil and Alkaloid Content in Boldo (Peumus boldus).